Historical Dhimmitude and Forced Conversions
Historical Dhimmitude and Forced Conversions in Al Andaluz.............Are we following the same path?
In the 8th century nearly all the Iberian peninsula, which had been under Visigothic rule, was quickly conquered (711–718), by mainly Berber Muslims, also known as Moors and Saracens, who had crossed over from North Africa, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad. Visigothic Spain was the last of a series of lands conquered in a great westward Islamically inspired armies of the Umayyad empire.
Although from the beginning Christians were given virtual autonomy to govern the affairs of their own religious communities, their subordinate position theoretically restricted them in many ways. Umar II (717-20), whose caliphate produced the first full series of laws designed to keep dhimmîs in their place, forbade the construction of any new churches. The so-called pact of Umar I, that came to be considered normative by the legal schools emerging in the eighth century, went even further, forbidding the repair of dilapidated, pre-existing churches. The caliphs and jurists also prohibited rituals and activities that drew too much public attention to Christianity, such as bell ringing or excessively loud chanting in church. Restrictions on processions and funerals were common for the same reasons. The most severe penalties, however, were reserved for those Christians who showed disrespect for Islam: its prophet, its tenets, or its adherents. Aside from such restrictions most of the laws were simply designed to underscore the position of the dimmîs as second-class citizens. Umar II issued a series of laws prohibiting dhimmîs from adopting certain characteristically Arab clothing and hair styles. He also seems to have been the first caliph to order all non-Muslim subjects to wear what would later come to be known as the zunnâr, a distinctive type of belt or girdle, for identification purposes. The pact of Umar also included restrictions on Christian use of arms and saddles. Slaves of Christians could, on the basis of this same principle, win their freedom simply by converting to Islam. Similarly the social position of the dhimmî precluded certain types of marital relationships. Sexual relations between a male dhimmî and a female Muslim were absolutely forbidden, though a male Muslim could legally marry a Christian or Jew.
At the beginning of the Moslem occupation of Spain, Christian institutions were tolerated, so that conversions were not numerous. Yet certain economic and political advantages could accumulate to those Christians and Jews who sincerely adopted the faith of the Moslems. Intermarriage had much to do with conversion, for the Arabs took wives, concubines and slave girls from the captured territory.
During the invasion by the fanatical Almoravides and the even more fanatical Almohades, conversions were forced to the point where most of the Christian population in the Moslem area was made of up of Renegados. Eventually, renegados, those who kept the Christian religion, were killed or compelled to flee to Christian lands. The fate of the Jews was much the same, although in the early days they had been respected members of the Moslem state, with greater rights and privileges than the Christians.
Many Christians in Spain, including Visigothic nobles, converted to Islam. Conversion was commonplace among merchants, large landowners, and other local elites. Drawn into the politics of Islamic power, many Christians found that conversion made it easier to maintain their influence. These tensions led to struggles between the established Muslim leadership and local lords from once Christian families.
The Roman Catholic Church in Muslim Spain continued to function, although it lost contact with religious reforms in Rome. Muslim Spain came to include a growing number of Mozarabic Christians, people who adopted Arabic language and culture and followed forms of religious service different from those of Rome. In addition, Jews held prominent positions in government, commerce, and the professions under Muslim rule.
The Muslim community in Spain was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. From the beginning the Berber tribes people of North Africa clashed with the Arabs of Egypt and the Middle East. The Berbers, who were comparatively recent converts to Islam, accounted for the largest share of Moors in Spain and they resented the sophistication and aristocratic pretensions of the Arab elite.
The Saracen kingdom in Spain was taken by the northern Christians led by El Cid Rodrigo (or Ruy) Diáz de Vivar, a commander under King Alfonso VI of Castile in the eleventh century. When Christianity spread over most of Spain in the 13th century, it was the Moslem’s turn to live in a Christian-dominated society. Mudejares and Jews were allowed at first to practice their religions and to retain their institutions, but later social, economic and religious pressures were used to force great numbers to convert. These baptized Mohammedans and Jews were called conversos. If they secretly kept their religion, they were called Marranos. Warring between the various factions against Muslims continued until the last Muslims were expelled from Spain with the surrender of Granada in the mid 15th century to their Catholic Majesties, Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon.
TERMS
Those who changed religions: Musalim
Christians or Jews to Islam...... Muwallad
Jews or Muslims to Christianity......Conversos
Renegados......Those who kept the Christian religion and were killed or compelled to flee to Christian lands.
Mozarabes......Christians, who adopted Arabic script and culture and preserved the old Visigothic rites that differed from those of Rome (Christians). Mozarabe is derived from the Arabic musta'rib, meaning Arabized or Arabic-speaking.
Muladies......Christian and Jewish converts to Islam
Dhimmis......An Arabic word meaning "protected". Dhimmi was the name applied by the Arab-Muslim conquerors to indigenous non-Muslim populations who surrendered by a treaty (dhimma) to Muslim domination. They were ruled by laws based on the shari'a. Dhimmitude can only be understood in the context of jihad, because it originates from this ideology. Infidels who submit without fighting to the Islamic armies, are granted a pledge of security. They are protected from the jihad laws against infidels which command killing, slavery, ransom or deportation for the enemies. Peace and security for non-Muslims is recognized only after their submission. Protection status is provided through the Islamization of conquered lands.
Marranos......New Christians of Jewish origin. The term marrano is especially used to refer to Crypto-Jews i.e. those who secretly continued to practice Judaism.
Moriscos......New Christians of Moorish origin. The term morisco may also refer crypto-Muslims, i.e. those who secretly continued to practice Islam.
Sephardim......Jews of the Iberian Peninsula
Saracens......Term commonly used by medieval Europeans to designate the Arabs and, by extension, the Muslims in general, whether they were Arabs,Moors, or Seljuk Turks.
Moors/Moros......The word Moors is a corrupted word referring to the people who came from Morocco. The Christians of the Iberian Peninsula began to use this term exclusively for Muslims when the Muslims lost administrative control of northern parts of Spain. The Muslims of Spain did not use the term “Moor,” which is “Moro” in Spanish, to identify themselves. “Moor” comes from the Greek word “mauron” and the Latin word “maurus,” both of which were used during early Middle Ages to refer to any black-skinned inhabitant of “Mauritania,” a generic term for black Africa, not the modern county of the same name.
Mudejares......Originating from the Arab Mudajjalwas originally used as a term of ridicule for the Muslims who made pacts with Christians, and even fought their Muslim brothers with the Christians.
QUR’ANIC QUOTES on CONVERSION
“Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. (Qur’an 9:29) If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.”
“No…Jew or Christian may be allowed to wear the dress of an aristocrat, nor of a jurist, nor of a wealthy individual; on the contrary they must be detested and avoided. It is forbidden to accost them with the greeting, ‘Peace be upon you’. (Qur’an 58:19 [modern Dawood translation]). A distinctive sign must be imposed upon them in order that they may be recognized and this will be for them a form of disgrace.”
SOURCES
Spain - a History in Art, Bradley
A Gemini-Smith, Inc. Book published by Doubleday 7 Company, Inc, Garden City, New York
http://www.secularislam.org/articles/bostom3.htm
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
http://www.solarnavigator.net/geography/spain.htm
THE LIBRARY OF IBERIAN RESOURCES ONLINE
A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1, Stanley G. Payne
Chapter Two, Al-Andalus
http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/moriscos.html
Wikipedia, Several subjects
Encarta, History of Spain
http://libro.uca.edu/martyrs/cm1.htm
In the 8th century nearly all the Iberian peninsula, which had been under Visigothic rule, was quickly conquered (711–718), by mainly Berber Muslims, also known as Moors and Saracens, who had crossed over from North Africa, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad. Visigothic Spain was the last of a series of lands conquered in a great westward Islamically inspired armies of the Umayyad empire.
Although from the beginning Christians were given virtual autonomy to govern the affairs of their own religious communities, their subordinate position theoretically restricted them in many ways. Umar II (717-20), whose caliphate produced the first full series of laws designed to keep dhimmîs in their place, forbade the construction of any new churches. The so-called pact of Umar I, that came to be considered normative by the legal schools emerging in the eighth century, went even further, forbidding the repair of dilapidated, pre-existing churches. The caliphs and jurists also prohibited rituals and activities that drew too much public attention to Christianity, such as bell ringing or excessively loud chanting in church. Restrictions on processions and funerals were common for the same reasons. The most severe penalties, however, were reserved for those Christians who showed disrespect for Islam: its prophet, its tenets, or its adherents. Aside from such restrictions most of the laws were simply designed to underscore the position of the dimmîs as second-class citizens. Umar II issued a series of laws prohibiting dhimmîs from adopting certain characteristically Arab clothing and hair styles. He also seems to have been the first caliph to order all non-Muslim subjects to wear what would later come to be known as the zunnâr, a distinctive type of belt or girdle, for identification purposes. The pact of Umar also included restrictions on Christian use of arms and saddles. Slaves of Christians could, on the basis of this same principle, win their freedom simply by converting to Islam. Similarly the social position of the dhimmî precluded certain types of marital relationships. Sexual relations between a male dhimmî and a female Muslim were absolutely forbidden, though a male Muslim could legally marry a Christian or Jew.
At the beginning of the Moslem occupation of Spain, Christian institutions were tolerated, so that conversions were not numerous. Yet certain economic and political advantages could accumulate to those Christians and Jews who sincerely adopted the faith of the Moslems. Intermarriage had much to do with conversion, for the Arabs took wives, concubines and slave girls from the captured territory.
During the invasion by the fanatical Almoravides and the even more fanatical Almohades, conversions were forced to the point where most of the Christian population in the Moslem area was made of up of Renegados. Eventually, renegados, those who kept the Christian religion, were killed or compelled to flee to Christian lands. The fate of the Jews was much the same, although in the early days they had been respected members of the Moslem state, with greater rights and privileges than the Christians.
Many Christians in Spain, including Visigothic nobles, converted to Islam. Conversion was commonplace among merchants, large landowners, and other local elites. Drawn into the politics of Islamic power, many Christians found that conversion made it easier to maintain their influence. These tensions led to struggles between the established Muslim leadership and local lords from once Christian families.
The Roman Catholic Church in Muslim Spain continued to function, although it lost contact with religious reforms in Rome. Muslim Spain came to include a growing number of Mozarabic Christians, people who adopted Arabic language and culture and followed forms of religious service different from those of Rome. In addition, Jews held prominent positions in government, commerce, and the professions under Muslim rule.
The Muslim community in Spain was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. From the beginning the Berber tribes people of North Africa clashed with the Arabs of Egypt and the Middle East. The Berbers, who were comparatively recent converts to Islam, accounted for the largest share of Moors in Spain and they resented the sophistication and aristocratic pretensions of the Arab elite.
The Saracen kingdom in Spain was taken by the northern Christians led by El Cid Rodrigo (or Ruy) Diáz de Vivar, a commander under King Alfonso VI of Castile in the eleventh century. When Christianity spread over most of Spain in the 13th century, it was the Moslem’s turn to live in a Christian-dominated society. Mudejares and Jews were allowed at first to practice their religions and to retain their institutions, but later social, economic and religious pressures were used to force great numbers to convert. These baptized Mohammedans and Jews were called conversos. If they secretly kept their religion, they were called Marranos. Warring between the various factions against Muslims continued until the last Muslims were expelled from Spain with the surrender of Granada in the mid 15th century to their Catholic Majesties, Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon.
Those who changed religions: Musalim
Christians or Jews to Islam...... Muwallad
Jews or Muslims to Christianity......Conversos
Renegados......Those who kept the Christian religion and were killed or compelled to flee to Christian lands.
Mozarabes......Christians, who adopted Arabic script and culture and preserved the old Visigothic rites that differed from those of Rome (Christians). Mozarabe is derived from the Arabic musta'rib, meaning Arabized or Arabic-speaking.
Muladies......Christian and Jewish converts to Islam
Dhimmis......An Arabic word meaning "protected". Dhimmi was the name applied by the Arab-Muslim conquerors to indigenous non-Muslim populations who surrendered by a treaty (dhimma) to Muslim domination. They were ruled by laws based on the shari'a. Dhimmitude can only be understood in the context of jihad, because it originates from this ideology. Infidels who submit without fighting to the Islamic armies, are granted a pledge of security. They are protected from the jihad laws against infidels which command killing, slavery, ransom or deportation for the enemies. Peace and security for non-Muslims is recognized only after their submission. Protection status is provided through the Islamization of conquered lands.
Marranos......New Christians of Jewish origin. The term marrano is especially used to refer to Crypto-Jews i.e. those who secretly continued to practice Judaism.
Moriscos......New Christians of Moorish origin. The term morisco may also refer crypto-Muslims, i.e. those who secretly continued to practice Islam.
Sephardim......Jews of the Iberian Peninsula
Saracens......Term commonly used by medieval Europeans to designate the Arabs and, by extension, the Muslims in general, whether they were Arabs,Moors, or Seljuk Turks.
Moors/Moros......The word Moors is a corrupted word referring to the people who came from Morocco. The Christians of the Iberian Peninsula began to use this term exclusively for Muslims when the Muslims lost administrative control of northern parts of Spain. The Muslims of Spain did not use the term “Moor,” which is “Moro” in Spanish, to identify themselves. “Moor” comes from the Greek word “mauron” and the Latin word “maurus,” both of which were used during early Middle Ages to refer to any black-skinned inhabitant of “Mauritania,” a generic term for black Africa, not the modern county of the same name.
Mudejares......Originating from the Arab Mudajjalwas originally used as a term of ridicule for the Muslims who made pacts with Christians, and even fought their Muslim brothers with the Christians.
QUR’ANIC QUOTES on CONVERSION
“Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. (Qur’an 9:29) If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.”
“No…Jew or Christian may be allowed to wear the dress of an aristocrat, nor of a jurist, nor of a wealthy individual; on the contrary they must be detested and avoided. It is forbidden to accost them with the greeting, ‘Peace be upon you’. (Qur’an 58:19 [modern Dawood translation]). A distinctive sign must be imposed upon them in order that they may be recognized and this will be for them a form of disgrace.”
SOURCES
Spain - a History in Art, Bradley
A Gemini-Smith, Inc. Book published by Doubleday 7 Company, Inc, Garden City, New York
http://www.secularislam.org/articles/bostom3.htm
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
http://www.solarnavigator.net/geography/spain.htm
THE LIBRARY OF IBERIAN RESOURCES ONLINE
A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 1, Stanley G. Payne
Chapter Two, Al-Andalus
http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/moriscos.html
Wikipedia, Several subjects
Encarta, History of Spain
http://libro.uca.edu/martyrs/cm1.htm
posted by Ms. Mary at 6:26 PM
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